1. Dialectic of Enlightenment
(a) What is "Enlightenment"?
Enlightenment refers with cognitive process that brings additional knowledge. Knowledge helps to reduce fear. Usually there is a fear of unknown due to lack of knowledge that gives birth of risk. When there is adequate knowledge the risk is reduced and you have better control. For better understanding authors used a very good example, ‘the supernatural spirits, ghosts or demons are taken to be reflections of human beings who allow themselves to be frightened by natural phenomena.’ The concept of enlightenment is to eliminate these self-created fears by enhancing the rational knowledge.
On the other hand in order to anticipate lack of knowledge humans can develop myths and beliefs that can be based on their previous experiences or perception. This additional knowledge helps to further clarify or reject the myths or believes that exist.
(b) What is "dialectic"?
Dialect is the method of argument that helps to find the right opinion. The basic purpose is to resolve the disagreement between two parties or persons through rational discussion. It may not be possible to reach to absolute truth but there are ways and logics that lead us closer to the truth.
(c) What is "nominalism" and why is it an important concept in the text?
The way I understood nominalization is that it brings relativity to reality. There are illogical things that are being used to give birth to logic and we made them absolute to make a basic structure. For example why A is called A is illogical but later this principal helps to create logical use of this letter. Same is the case for digits. Similarly there could be things around us that doesn’t exist and we have created them to bring more logic and methods to our world.
(d) What is the meaning and function of "myth" in Adorno and Horkheimer's argument?
Myths are the stories that we have created to fill the gap of knowledge. Myths could be leading misleading half true as well. But in all the cases myths are there, pointing that there is a lack of knowledge. So myth indicate the absence of knowledge and creates attention. Adorno and Horkiemer has also argued that enlightenment is a process that lead to clarity of these myths and clear the way to truth.
2. "The Work of Art in the Age of Technical Reproductivity"
(a) In the beginning of the essay, Benjamin talks about the relation between "superstructure" and "substructure" in the capitalist order of production. What do the concepts "superstructure" and "substructure" mean in this context and what is the point of analyzing cultural production from a Marxist perspective?
I understand from the text, ‘substructure’ is directly connected to the general production such as machines, factories, tools etc. ‘Superstructure’ is ideology for the general production such as concepts, laws, reasons etc. As mentioned in text that superstructure takes place very slowly than the substructure so it is important that substructures (which prepare the base or ground for general production) must met the superstructures (ideology, constitute). In the context of art film, photography, paintings are the forms of substructure and conventional ideology behind them is superstructure. In a Marxist perspective, substructure is base which forces the feasible work conditions and technically division of labour, and in these conditions cultural production takes place which is necessary for people’s life. And superstructure is cultural ideology such as rules, politics etc. which often influence the base. For example any culture is built on some core values that are very hard to change but bringing minor changes to any culture or slow transition is easier.
(b) Does culture have revolutionary potentials (according to Benjamin)? If so, describe these potentials. Does Benjamin's perspective differ from the perspective of Adorno & Horkheimer in this regard?
In my opinion the concept of enlightenment is the concept that can revolutionize a society. So yes, culture has revolutionary potentials. As enlightenment leads to further clarity of unclear or the knowledge about unknown can raise the awareness to change the logics that are wrong. So in case if there will be enlightenment toward the elements of subcultures then subculture will change but the basic structure of the society will still be same. On the other hand if there will be higher enlightenment towards the superstructures of the society there could be revolution on a greater scale. In this way, Benjamin's perspective is not different from the perspective of Adorno & Horkheimer.
(c) Benjamin discusses how people perceive the world through the senses and argues that this perception can be both naturally and historically determined. What does this mean? Give some examples of historically determined perception (from Benjamin's essay and/or other contexts).
As I understand this concept historically perceived, perceptions are the ones that were conceived on the basis of natural senses first. The perception may have been combined with individual cognitive abilities but later these perceptions developed as the people shared each other’s views and opinions and the process of cognition went on for a time that further lead to developments in perceptions.
For example as Benjamin explained this concept with example of Roman art that, how not only the culture changed but human being’s perception changed too about Roman art industry.
(d) What does Benjamin mean by the term "aura"? Are there different kinds of aura in natural objects compared to art objects?
As I understand what Aura means is, if we see things from some distance we may have a picture of them that include some of their shadows or reflections that can be differ from actual picture. What we will see also include some other elements because of distance. Though, the term ‘aura’ refers to the uniqueness of object. I think natural aura (objects) cannot be changed because of its natural characteristics and facts. On the other hand, artistic aura can be shaped as per modern necessities.
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